Galtman, Amanda. “Stretching XPath: Three Testing Tales: Beyond Primary Use Cases of Certain XML Functions
and Standards.” Presented at Balisage: The Markup Conference 2024, Washington, DC, July 29 - August 2, 2024. In Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2024. Balisage Series on Markup Technologies, vol. 29 (2024). https://doi.org/10.4242/BalisageVol29.Galtman01.
Balisage: The Markup Conference 2024 July 29 - August 2, 2024
Balisage Paper: Stretching XPath: Three Testing Tales
Beyond Primary Use Cases of Certain XML Functions and Standards
Amanda Galtman is an independent XML software developer and a maintainer of
XSpec. She writes about XSpec at https://medium.com/@xspectacles. Previously, she was an XML software
developer at MathWorks.
This paper describes three testing situations that can be addressed by
markup-technology functionality whose primary uses are fairly different from those
testing
situations. One testing situation involves ensuring that certain kinds of test verifications
don’t pass for the wrong reason. Another situation involves testing an XSLT template
both
cleanly and compactly. The third situation involves reducing maintenance of schema-valid
and
schema-invalid XML fragments when testing a schema. Software testing frameworks are
sometimes sparse in their own functionality, but the XSpec and BaseX software discussed
here
can use rich functionality from the XML technologies on which they rest.
This paper tells three tales on a common theme: things
motivated by one purpose are sometimes useful for a different
purpose. When you have a software problem, you might suddenly
realize that an obscure function you read about but have never
used could be part of the solution. The other theme among the
three tales is that they involve testing XML-related software. Two
testing situations involve testing XSLT or XQuery using XSpec,
while the third involves testing a schema using XSpec or BaseX.
XSpec is an open-source software product for testing XSLT, XQuery,
and Schematron code [XS]. BaseX is an
open-source XQuery processor that includes functions and
annotations for unit testing [B][UM].
If you use XSpec or BaseX for testing, you might be interested
in the specific problems and solutions in these tales. Even if you
don’t use those testing frameworks, you might find broader lessons
that you can apply elsewhere.
Tale 1: The Cupboard Was Bare
The first tale is about XSpec tests for XSLT or XQuery code
where a sequence is unexpectedly empty. Perhaps your test code
tries to do something with the first paragraph of the third
section of a document, but the document has only two sections.
Empty sequences are a normal thing in XPath and the XML
applications that use XPath, so you don’t necessarily get any
feedback that the sought-after paragraph’s parent is
nonexistent.
A sequence that is empty by mistake can lead to two categories of testing problems:
Tests pass despite the mistake, but they might not be doing what you think they’re
doing. Tests that silently neglect to serve their core purpose give you a false sense
of
security about the health and coverage of the code you’re testing.
Tests fail due to the mistake, and the failures might be confusing for you to
troubleshoot until you discover the mistake. This phenomenon is not as bad as the
first
one, but the confusion wastes your time.
Unexpectedly empty sequences can lead to unexpected results in non-testing situations,
too, so the lesson we will learn about making assumptions explicit can be applied
in other
code where you use XPath.
Example of (A), Tests Passing Despite Mistake
Consider an XSpec scenario that calls an XSLT or XQuery function that produces a topic
document having sections and paragraphs. XSpec stores the document in a variable named
x:result. Suppose you expect at least three sections, and you want to verify
that the third section does not contain any paragraphs. You can use XSpec syntax like
one of
these two <x:expect> elements:
Figure 1: Verifications that Assume Third Section Exists
<x:expect label="The third section has no paragraphs"
test="empty($x:result/topic/section[3]/para)"/>
<x:expect label="The third section has no paragraphs"
test="$x:result/topic/section[3]/para" select="()"/>
The first syntax expresses a true/false condition using the
empty function, and the verification passes if
the condition is true. The second syntax uses the
test attribute to filter the document down to a
hypothetical paragraph in the third section of the topic and
verifies that the filtering didn’t find anything—that is, the
path expression led to the empty sequence that equals the
select attribute.
When constructing these <x:expect> elements, presumably you thought
$x:result/topic/section[3] would return at least one section. The label
certainly describes the third section as if it exists. If it doesn’t exist,
the verifications pass for the wrong reason, as follows:
The path expression, $x:result/topic/section[3] returns an empty
sequence.
The longer expression, $x:result/topic/section[3]/para also returns an
empty sequence.
The <x:expect> elements pass when you run the test.
You receive no feedback that existence of the third section was a false
assumption.
You haven’t accomplished the objective of this test, which was to verify a
characteristic of a section you thought existed.
Maybe the test really should have used a path like
$x:result/topic/section[2]/para or
$x:result/topic/descendant::section[3]/para, or a different value of the
input argument to the function being tested. Maybe the XSLT or XQuery code has a bug
that
causes the third section to be missing. In any case, the lack of feedback makes it
harder to
discover the mistake.
Example of (B), Mistake Hindering Failure Investigation
Working with the actual result of a test scenario is not the only place where path
expressions can have mistakes. Consider an XSpec scenario for testing an XSLT or XQuery
function named f:proto-list that produces list markup with one list item for
each node in an input parameter. The scenario loads an XML document from an external
file
named test-document.xml and uses an XPath expression to select nodes as the
value of the parameter.
Figure 2: Parameter Assumed to Contain Elements
<x:scenario label="Generate list of tables">
<x:call function="f:proto-list">
<x:param name="items" href="test-document.xml"
select="topic/section/table"/>
</x:call>
<x:expect label="List with one item per table">
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Table 1. Size chart</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Table 2. Color choices</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</x:expect>
</x:scenario>
Suppose the document in test-document.xml has no <table>
elements having the specified path, such as because the tables are all in subsections
rather
than first-level sections. In this case, the function parameter named items is
an empty sequence, and the test probably fails. While troubleshooting, you might spend
a lot
of time investigating the XSLT or XQuery code in the function before realizing that
the
problem is either in the test’s <x:param> element or in the test
document.
In Search of Prevention
The XSpec vocabulary is fairly small and does not have dedicated features to alert
you
when a path expression you provide evaluates to an empty sequence. Using the XSpec
vocabulary, you have these options for detecting such an empty sequence:
Insert extra <x:expect> elements to verify that a path evaluates to
something non-empty, such as the following code to augment Figure 1. However, the extra verification leads to repetition or
clutter in the test scenario.
<x:expect label="Confirm that there is a third section"
test="exists($x:result/topic/section[3])"/>
Use the as attribute on some XSpec element, to declare a data type that
can’t match an empty sequence (e.g., as="element()+"). For example, the
<x:param> element below can replace the one in Figure 2.
Declaring data types is generally a good idea. However, to attach an as
attribute to an intermediate result, you’d have to declare it as a separate variable.
Maybe that’s a good idea, too, or maybe it seems like overkill.
What if you want an unobtrusive way to ensure that an
intermediate result isn’t empty, without adding extra elements
to the test or extra rows in the test report?
XPath Syntax Options
It turns out that XPath already has concise syntaxes that provide a way to say,
Alert me when this path evaluates to an empty sequence. You can slip them
into any XPath expression that you use in XSpec. You can even use them with an intermediate
result like a portion of a path expression, without having to define a separate XSpec
variable.
The one-or-more function is a pass-through function for a nonempty
input sequence but issues an error message for an empty input sequence.
The exactly-one function works the same way but is stricter in the way
its name implies. You can use it where you expect a sequence of one item instead of
zero
or multiple items.
The treat as operator asserts that a sequence has a certain data type.
Although the syntax is often less readable than the use of the functions mentioned
above, an advantage of this operator is that it lets you express more than just
cardinality.
Outside XSpec, these syntaxes are useful when an XPath processor performs static type
checking and you want to promise the processor up-front that a sequence will satisfy
a
certain data type condition at run time. Making a strict processor relax its vigilance
is a
use case that comes up in the specification [KXP] and in authoritative
books like those by Michael Kay [K2] and Priscilla Walmsley [W].
In the XSpec situation that this tale is about, avoiding a
static type error from a strict processor is not what’s going
on. Instead, it’s the other way around, where you want a lax
processor to be vigilant and tell you when something doesn’t
have the cardinality or data type you expect. Some references
for these syntaxes, such as [K2], mention this
other use case, and you might encounter non-testing situations
where these syntaxes help you construct XPath expressions that
alert you to severe missing-data problems. I learned about the
testing value of these syntaxes from the XSpec lead developer,
GitHub user AirQuick.
XPath Syntax in the XSpec Examples
Returning to the earlier code examples, you can insert a call to the
exactly-one function to make sure you find out if the third section fails to
exist:
Figure 3: Verifications that Confirm Third Section Exists
<x:expect label="The third section has no paragraphs"
test="empty(exactly-one($x:result/topic/section[3])/para)"/>
<x:expect label="The third section has no paragraphs"
test="exactly-one($x:result/topic/section[3])/para" select="()"/>
Also, you can insert a call to the one-or-more function to make sure you
find out if the function parameter turns out to be empty:
Figure 4: Parameter Confirmed to Contain Elements
<x:scenario label="Generate list of tables">
<x:call function="f:proto-list">
<x:param name="items" href="test-document.xml"
select="one-or-more(topic/section/table)"/>
</x:call>
<x:expect label="List with one item per table">
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>Table 1. Size chart</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>Table 2. Color choices</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</x:expect>
</x:scenario>
With these changes, if the exactly-one or
one-or-more function produces an error message
when the test runs, the error gives you clear and valuable
information that addresses the two categories of testing
problems in this tale.
Tale 2: Good Functions Make Good Neighbors
The second tale is about XSpec tests for XSLT code where you
want to test a lot of tiny contexts that each produce a tiny
result, and you don’t want the contexts and results to be dwarfed
by the amount of test code overhead. An example I came across in a
real project [US] was a set of three template
rules in a certain mode. Each template matched an attribute node
and produced an attribute node. Working together, these templates
determined the value of the resulting (i.e., output) attribute,
based on the value of the matching (i.e., input) attribute. The
template shown in Figure 5 had the most
general match attribute of the three templates. This
template acted as a fallback, mapping 11 distinct input values to
the same output.[1]
Figure 5: XSLT Template for Nonspecific Data Types
<xsl:template match="@as-type" mode="assign-json-type"
as="attribute(in-json)">
<xsl:attribute name="in-json">string</xsl:attribute>
</xsl:template>
<!–- Other template rules match @as-type with specific values -->
What are some ways to test 11 miniature mappings? The following simple XSpec scenario
for
one of the 11 mappings uses eight lines:
Figure 6: Scenario that Verifies One Mapping, No Reuse
Doing the same thing 11 times uses 88 lines, which seems like a lot of code for something
so simple. XSpec supports reusing scenarios either verbatim or with variable substitutions,
and using those techniques can reduce the code from 88 lines to 71 or 52 lines, respectively.
Here’s how the variable-substitution idea would look, where you would have 11 scenarios
like
the first one below, and they would all reuse the second scenario. (Assume the prefix
v is bound to some user-defined namespace URI for test-specific
variables.)
Figure 7: Scenario that Verifies One Mapping, Reuse with Variable Substitutions
<x:scenario label="as-type='uuid'">
<x:variable name="v:this-type" select="'uuid'"/>
<x:like label="adaptable mapping"/>
</x:scenario>
<!-- Add 10 scenarios analogous to the one above -->
<x:scenario label="adaptable mapping" shared="yes">
<x:context mode="assign-json-type" select="/*/@as-type">
<value as-type="{$v:this-type}"/>
</x:context>
<x:expect label="maps to in-json='string'" select="/*/@in-json">
<any-element in-json="string" xmlns=""/>
</x:expect>
</x:scenario>
Even 52 lines might seem too long.
Compact, Scalable Test with Neighboring Contexts
We can reduce the test code to one 19-line scenario, by putting all 11 input items
in a
single <x:context> element, as follows:
In this scenario, the context is a sequence of 11 as-type attribute nodes,
because the select="/*/@as-type" attribute is selecting the attribute nodes
from the child elements of <x:context>. XSpec loops over the 11 nodes and
applies templates to each. XSpec gathers the actual results together into a sequence
of 11
in-json attributes, and that sequence is what the <x:expect>
element uses for verification. If verification fails, the report would show the full
sequences of actual and expected results, and we would need to determine which of
the 11
comparisons failed; that extra labor is one reason I do not use multiple-item contexts
in
that many situations.
In this case, the expected value is identical for all the context nodes; it’s an
in-json="string" attribute node. The <x:expect> provides this
node in one child element and uses select="for $i in ($x:context) return
/*/@in-json" to replicate the attribute node once per context item. The notation
$x:context refers to a variable that XSpec populates with the 11-item
context. (In XPath 4.0, an alternative could be
select="replicate(/*/@in-json,count($x:context))".)
Now the scenario is fairly compact and would scale well if
we needed to add a few more input values. This tale isn’t
complete, though, because of an aspect of the scenario that
might be problematic or seem philosophically questionable: the
potential for the different items in the context to interfere
with each other as the XSLT code accesses parts of the tree.
Having the different items mingling in the XSpec markup makes
the test code concise, but having them mingle when the XSLT runs
is not desirable.
What makes interference during the XSLT execution a possibility is that the context
is a
sequence of 11 attribute nodes within a tree that includes all 11
elements as siblings of each other. To see evidence of this tree relationship, add
the
following message to the XSLT template and watch the console output from running the
test.
Figure 9: Message to Show Contexts Have Tree Relationship
<xsl:message expand-text="1">Preceding {
local-name(..)} element has as-type={
../preceding-sibling::*[1]/@as-type/string()
}</xsl:message>
Figure 10: Console Output Showing Tree Relationship
Preceding value element has as-type=
Preceding value element has as-type=uuid
Preceding value element has as-type=markup-line
Preceding value element has as-type=dateTime-with-timezone
Preceding value element has as-type=string
Preceding value element has as-type=token
Preceding value element has as-type=uri
Preceding value element has as-type=markup-multiline
Preceding value element has as-type=uri-reference
Preceding value element has as-type=email
Preceding value element has as-type=empty
Preventing Interference Among Contexts
How might a test make the attributes isolated, if they don’t start that way? XSpec
lacks
syntax for constructing new attribute nodes. XSpec does support helper functionality,
such
as an XSLT function that takes an attribute within a tree and creates a new, isolated
attribute node.
However, a solution is even easier than that! In the XSLT 3.0 specification, the
Streaming section lists functions named copy-of and
snapshot that isolate parts of trees. While snapshot preserves
the subtree’s ancestors and their attributes, copy-of returns the subtree only.
Neither function includes siblings in its output. These functions are useful during
stream
processing, which imposes restrictions on access to nodes of a tree. Buffering a copy
of a
subtree in memory, with or without the ancestry of the subtree, enables freer access
to it.
The specification notes that each of these two functions is available for use (and is
primarily intended for use) when a source document is processed using streaming. It
can
also be used when not streaming [K3].
This XSpec situation does not involve stream processing, and the two functions are
useful not because of access restrictions or memory usage but for isolation and test
cleanliness. If the <x:context> element in Figure 8 changes select="/*/@as-type" to select="/*/@as-type/copy-of()",
the XSLT code sees isolated attributes instead of attributes of elements in a tree.
The
console messages from running the test no longer show the name of the element or its
preceding sibling’s attribute value, because there is no element and hence no sibling
element.
Preceding element has as-type=
Preceding element has as-type=
Preceding element has as-type=
Preceding element has as-type=
Preceding element has as-type=
Preceding element has as-type=
Preceding element has as-type=
Preceding element has as-type=
Preceding element has as-type=
Preceding element has as-type=
Preceding element has as-type=
As a variation, changing select="/*/@as-type" to
select="/*/@as-type/snapshot()" causes the XSLT code to see attributes that
are attached to elements, but each element has no siblings. The console messages from
running the test show the name of the element but not a preceding sibling’s attribute
value,
because there is no sibling element.
Figure 12: Console Output Showing Attribute Nodes with Ancestry
Preceding value element has as-type=
Preceding value element has as-type=
Preceding value element has as-type=
Preceding value element has as-type=
Preceding value element has as-type=
Preceding value element has as-type=
Preceding value element has as-type=
Preceding value element has as-type=
Preceding value element has as-type=
Preceding value element has as-type=
Preceding value element has as-type=
The point is that if siblings affected the XSLT template’s behavior in a way that
could
affect the test, using copy-of or snapshot in the XSpec code would
take those siblings out of the view of the XSLT template. As a result, a test author
would
be able to write a compact scenario having a multiple-item context while preventing
interference among the different items.
Tale 3: Schema and Variations
The third tale is about testing a schema (say, Schematron,
RelaxNG, or XSD) with easier maintenance of the documents that
support the tests. One way to test a schema is to validate a
series of valid and invalid documents, and check that the
validation results are what you expect. The valid and invalid
documents might be related to each other. I like to test with
invalid documents that are invalid for exactly one reason, which
means each invalid document has a lot in common with a valid
one.
If you follow that approach, you have a set of documents and a
set of variations that make invalid documents into valid ones or
vice versa. To ease maintenance, it would be nice to derive the
variation documents programmatically from the originals, instead
of doing manual copy-and-modify operations and then maintaining
all the documents independently. Of course, the code that derives
variations programmatically is something to maintain, so you want
that code to be easier to maintain than the variations as
independent documents.
You can certainly write some XSLT or XQuery code to create
minor variations of documents. For instance, you can start with an
identity transform and implement a system for specifying and then
creating the variations you want. However, you don’t have to start
from scratch, because there is already a standard way to create
minor variations of documents. The XQuery Update Facility standard
provides expressions that insert, delete, replace, and rename
nodes. In addition to supporting that standard, the BaseX XQuery
processor offers its own convenience operator for making updates
with a streamlined syntax.
In the XQuery Update Facility 1.0 Requirements document [C], the first usage scenario is about updating
persistent storage like a database. Other usage scenarios describe
updates in the literal sense of bringing something up to date by
adding new information or refreshing a status. While the
requirements are not limited to time-oriented updates, newness is
prominent in the descriptions. The testing usage in this tale
originates from a different mindset. When creating variants of a
document for schema testing, the point is not that a variant has
fresher content but rather that it serves a different testing
purpose compared to the original document. The variant is not
necessarily better, and it’s up to you whether to programmatically
produce an invalid variant from a valid document or a valid
variant from an invalid document. You might pick a consistent
direction of operation for your entire test suite or decide per
document which direction is simpler to code.
Creating the Variations
Here are two examples of XQuery Update code for creating
variants as persistent files, where the file:write
and file:base-dir functions are specific to
BaseX.
Figure 13: Renaming code as literal Makes a Valid Document
Invalid
Read the original document using doc(), and keep a copy in
memory.
Modify the copy in memory, using a sequence of one or more expressions from the
XQuery Update vocabulary. If the invalid documents are nearly valid by design, these
expressions are likely to be simple and few. The first example renames
<d:code> elements as <d:literal>, assuming the query
contains a namespace declaration that binds the d prefix to the namespace
URI that the document from step 1 also uses. The second example moves a
<d:abstract> element, by copying it to some location and deleting the
original.
Write the result to a file different from the original file. Unlike some
applications of XQuery Update, this situation does not modify the original file in
place.
If you don’t mind using even more BaseX-specific functionality, you can streamline
the
syntax using the BaseX convenience operator, update [XB]. The
three steps are the same, but they look a bit different in this syntax. Here is how
the
expressions above look using the update operator:
Figure 15: BaseX-Specific: Renaming code as literal Makes a Valid Document Invalid
If you have a module of functions that each use this
three-step procedure, you can run all the functions in the
module to create all the variations you need. With the variation
files in hand, you are ready to run validation tests against the
set of original documents and generated documents. The
validation tests themselves can use whatever testing
functionality you like, such as the Schematron support in XSpec
or the BaseX modules for validation and unit testing.
Advantages of separating the variant creation from the
validation testing include:
Variant files in the file system are easy to inspect
while you are fine-tuning your XQuery Update expressions and
easy to validate manually while troubleshooting test
failures.
You can create variant documents using one processor and
run validation tests using a different one. For example, you
can use BaseX to create variant documents and then use Saxon
to run XSpec tests for a Schematron schema. (Saxon supports
XQuery Update but requires an enterprise license.)
On the other hand, disadvantages include:
There are two processes to manage, and they must run
sequentially.
The variant creation process needs write permission to
create the files wherever the
If you think the disadvantages outweigh the advantages, you
can combine the XQuery Update expressions with the validation
tests themselves. Here, we show an example that illustrates the
combination approach, using two BaseX modules: validation and
unit testing.
First, we declare namespaces and a global variable that
stores the path to a RelaxNG schema.
Although it is not required, we find it useful to define
helper functions that perform repeated tasks. These helper
functions validate documents using the
validate:rng-info function [V] and make test
assertions using the unit:assert function [UM]. The
validate:rng-info function returns a string
sequence containing warnings and errors, if any. The test
assertion hinges on whether this string sequence is empty (that
is, the document is valid) or non-empty. In the
unit:assert element, the second parameter is
output in case of a test failure, so it should be something that
helps you investigate the failure.
Figure 18: Helper Functions for Validation and Test
Assertion
declare function mytest:expect-valid(
$to-validate as item()
) as empty-sequence() {
let $val := $to-validate => validate:rng-info($mytest:rng-schema)
return
unit:assert(empty($val), $val)
};
declare function mytest:expect-invalid(
$to-validate as item()
) as empty-sequence() {
let $val := $to-validate => validate:rng-info($mytest:rng-schema)
return
unit:assert(exists($val), 'Valid when it should have been invalid')
};
If you start with a valid document and use XQuery Update to
make it invalid, your test functions look like the following
pair. The second function in the pair uses XQuery Update code
identical to Figure 13. Each
function uses one of the helper functions defined above.
Figure 19: Unit Tests for Valid Doc with Invalid Variation
declare %unit:test function mytest:valid-sample-doc() {
(: As is, the file is valid :)
mytest:expect-valid('original/valid-123.xml')
};
declare %unit:test function mytest:xqupdate-makes-invalid-literal() {
copy $s := doc('original/valid-123.xml')
modify (
(: Renaming <code> as <literal> makes the file invalid :)
rename node $s/d:article//d:code
as 'd:literal'
)
return
mytest:expect-invalid($s)
};
Going in the other direction, if you start with an invalid
document and use XQuery Update to make it valid, your test
functions look like the following. The second function in the
pair uses XQuery Update code identical to Figure 14.
Figure 20: Unit Tests for Invalid Doc with Valid Variation
declare %unit:test function mytest:invalid-sample-doc-abstract() {
(: As is, the file is invalid :)
mytest:expect-invalid('original/invalid-456.xml')
};
declare %unit:test function mytest:xqupdate-makes-valid-abstract() {
copy $s := doc('original/invalid-456.xml')
modify (
(: Moving <abstract> makes the file valid :)
insert node ($s/d:article/d:abstract)
before $s/d:article/d:info/d:author,
delete node $s/d:article/d:abstract
)
return
mytest:expect-valid($s)
};
If you run the test module in BaseX, the result looks like
this:
If you cause deliberate test failures by interchanging
mytest:expect-invalid with
mytest:expect-valid, the failures produce
<failure> elements like the following. The
line and column numbers point to the helper functions (not
extremely useful when all the functions use the same helper
functions), while the child <info> elements
provide some useful information.
Figure 22: BaseX Test Output for Failing Tests
<testsuites time="PT0.048S">
<testsuite name="file:/.../generate-in-memory-and-then-test.xqm"
time="PT0.048S" tests="4" failures="2" errors="0" skipped="0">
<testcase name="valid-sample-doc" time="PT0.007S"/>
<testcase name="xqupdate-makes-invalid-literal" time="PT0.01S">
<failure line="13" column="16">
<info>file:/.../original/valid-123.xml, 20:98:
element "d:literal" not allowed anywhere; expected the
element end-tag, text or element "blockquote", "citation",
"code", "email", "emphasis", "equation", "figure", "footnote",
"informaltable", "inlinemediaobject", "itemizedlist", "link",
"mediaobject", "note", "orderedlist", "phrase", "programlisting",
"quote", "subscript", "superscript", "table", "trademark",
"variablelist" or "xref"
</info>
</failure>
</testcase>
<testcase name="invalid-sample-doc-abstract" time="PT0.007S"/>
<testcase name="xqupdate-makes-valid-abstract" time="PT0.009S">
<failure line="19" column="16">
<info>Valid when it should have been invalid</info>
</failure>
</testcase>
</testsuite>
</testsuites>
Conclusion
Testing your code helps you maintain the code in a high
quality state, but test files and their supporting files also
require care and maintenance. These three tales illustrated
specific ways to guard against a test passing for the wrong
reason, to prevent interference among test cases that you place
near each other for compactness, and to reduce copy/modify
operations you perform manually among the documents you use for
schema testing. At a higher level, the specific techniques
illustrate how beneficial it is that the testing frameworks in the
XML space rest upon the standards in that space. Even if your
testing task is unrelated to static type checking, streaming, or
data refreshing, your tests can benefit from functionality that
those usage scenarios motivated.